The US has been touting the idea of sending people to Mars for so long that Russia’s president, Vladimir Putin, decided to raise the stakes and throw Russia’s hat into the space race. Putin announced that Russia will launch a mission to the Red Planet in 2019, and if successful, it would beat NASA’s planned exploration of Mars by a full year.

“We are planning unmanned and later manned launches,” said Putin. “The closest mission is very soon, we are planning to launch a mission to Mars in 2019,”

The Russian president revealed his country’s plans in a new documentary which was widely shared on social media. In addition to the Mars mission, Putin also revealed that they will launch a mission to the moon.

According to a Russian news outlet, the Mars spacecraft will not be manned. For the lunar mission, Putin said that the country will focus on the moon’s poles because water may be there.

Putin did not specify when it 2019 the Mars mission would occur. As for NASA, the space agency is expected to launch its mission to Mars around July and August 2020 when the positions between Earth and Mars are best placed for a landing.

Putin, who is expected to be re-elected as president in the country’s election on Sunday, did not specify the goal of the Mars mission. The last known Mars mission that Russia was involved in would happen in 2020, with its participation in the ExoMars rover. This project is developed in partnership between Russia’s space agency, Roscosmos, and the European Space Agency. The mission of the ExoMars rover is to search for microscopic life, be it from the Red Planet’s past or present.

Among the countries who are competing in the space race are India and China. India is expected to launch its second lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2 later this year, and it would include a rover. China is also poised to launch its Chang’e-4 mission in 2018 and would explore the far side of the moon.

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While Neanderthals are a unique form of ancient hominins, the term ‘neanderthal’ is also used to describe people who are brutish and who are perceived as not very smart. This generalization was the mainstay among scientists for decades. Many researchers have contested the claim that Neanderthals were able to care for each other’s well-being pointing to the number of fossils with apparent injuries. Yet, a new study found that these archaic humans were compassionate beings who could provide a “compassionate and knowledgeable response to injury and illness”.

Previous studies have established that Neanderthals sometimes provided care for the injured, however, researchers at the University of York in the UK suggest that these proto-humans were generally compassionate to their peers.

“Our findings suggest Neanderthals didn’t think in terms of whether others might repay their effort, they just responded to their feelings about seeing their loved ones suffering,” said Dr. Penny Spiking, lead author of the study and a senior lecturer in the Archaeology of Human Origin at the University of York.

Most of the Neanderthal fossils had a severe injury of some kind and detailed pathologies revealed a range of debilitating conditions and injuries. Some of these injuries appeared long before death, and would have required monitoring, fever management, hygiene care, and massage, the researchers said.

For example, analysis of a male aged around 25-40 at time of death highlighted a list of illnesses, including a degenerative disease of the spine and shoulders.  Judging by the state of his condition, researchers believe that he would have been drained of all remaining strength in the final 12 months of his life. However, researchers argued that the archaic human remained part of the group as his remains were subsequently carefully buried.

According to Dr. Spikins, healthcare among the Neanderthal people has been overlooked and all interpretations that would point to a knowledgeable response to injury were overshadowed by their “different” and brutish appearance. More so, researchers argue that organized and caring healthcare is not unique to homo sapiens but rather has a “long evolutionary history”.

The study was published in the journal, World Archaeology.

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Scott and Mark Kelly are identical twins brothers. However, that notion was slightly changed after Scott Kelly came back to Earth after spending a year aboard the International Space Station. Upon his return, scientists quickly noticed that the astronaut’s genes were changed.

When Scott Kelly returned to Earth after a 340-day trek aboard the ISS two years ago, he was 2 inches taller than he’d been when he left. More so, his body mass had decreased, and his gut bacteria were entirely different. Now, a new NASA statement revealed that the astronaut experienced a seven percent change in his genes.

According to NASA, Scott Kelly’s year aboard the ISS may have activated hundreds of “space genes” that changed the astronaut’s immune system, eyesight, bone formation, and other bodily processed. The reason for this alteration, the agency believes, was due to the physical and mental stresses Scott Kelly was subjected to in space.

While most of the changes experienced in Earth’s orbit has since reverted upon his return, about seven percent of the astronaut’s genetic code remained altered.

Some changes returned to baseline within hours or days of landing, while a few persisted after six months,” NASA reports in its preliminary findings.

Scott Kelly’s year aboard the ISS was part of a project called the Twins Study. The goal of this project was to reveal the long-term effects of space travel on the human body and mind. Kelly is the first astronaut to have stayed aboard the ISS for 340 days. A typical stay aboard the ISS is for six months.

Meanwhile, Scott Kelly’s identical twin brother, Mark, who is a retired astronaut, remained on Earth as a control subject. According to NASA, the Kelly brothers are the only twin astronauts in history.

Scientists tested both Mark and Scott before, during and after Scott’s first year in space to map specific changes in his physical and mental health.

The genes that remained altered after returning to Earth dealt with bone formation, oxygen deprivation, immune system responses, and DNA repair.

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While the possibility of life on Mars has captivated the minds of Earth, it turns out that Saturn’s moon, Enceladus, might also boast its own lifeforms. A new study, published in the journal, Nature, suggests that the icy moon may have ideal conditions for single-celled microorganisms known as archaeans, typically found in some of the most extreme environments on Earth.

According to the researchers, a methanogenic archaean called Methanonthermococcus okinawensis was able to thrive in a simulated environment that mimicked conditions to those that are believed to exist on Enceladus.

On our planet, this type of archaean is found at very hot temperatures near deep-sea hydrothermal vents. The microorganisms can convert carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas into methane.

Traces of methane were previously detected in vapor emanating from cracks in Enceladus’ surface.

“We conclude that some of the CH4 (methane) detected in the plume of Enceladus might, in principle, be produced by methanogens,” the researchers wrote.

Study researcher, Ruth- Sophie Taubner, from the University of Vienna, and her team, exposed the methanogen, M. okinawensis, to an environment similar to the hydrothermal vents on Enceladus’ seafloor. The researchers found that the microbes were able to grow well and produce methane.

If alien life were to exist on Saturn’s moon, then it would possibly share the same characteristics as the M. okinawensis methanogen. It could also explain the presence of methane on Enceladus.

Taubner and her colleagues also modeled the water-rock formation that would occur in the moon’s interior and found that these reactions can produce large amounts of molecular hydrogen. This means that Enceladus can sustain methanogenic organisms such as M. okinawensis.

However, Simon Rittmann, of the University of Vienna and co-author of the paper, said that the latest results should be taken with a grain of salt as the data obtained was purely on laboratory study.

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Researchers from the University of St. Andrews and Cornell University believe that a closer look into how Earth’s atmosphere evolved over time could help us identify which exoplanets are capable of sustaining life.

According to the research paper, published in the Astrophysical Journal, the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere may be similar to that of planets found outside our solar system.

In order to reach this conclusion, a team of researchers led by astronomer and astrobiologist from the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Cornell, Dr. Sarah Rugheimer, looked at different geological epochs from Earth’s history. By looking at how Earth’s atmosphere evolved over time, they managed to develop atmospheric models of different stars, bigger and smaller than our Sun.

According to the researchers, a planet’s host star is an important factor in how the exoplanet’s atmosphere develops. More so, it also established how detectable potential life forms can become.

The study focused on four epochs in Earth’s atmospheric evolution. These epochs included before and after microbes appeared on the planet (3.9 billion years ago), the first rise of oxygen (2 billion years ago), the second rise of oxygen (800 million years ago), and modern-day Earth. Researchers explained that at each of these points, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and methane were drastically different in quantity.

The findings may become the basis for a potential system that helps scientists interpret early biosignatures and signs of life on Earth-like exoplanets.

“We expect to find a myriad of exoplanets beyond even our wildest imagination,” said Dr. Rugheimer “… we can start to create a grid of models to help us understand future observations.”

The researchers also took into account cloud cover and surface features such as continents and oceans, to see how these affected the models.

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NASA’s Kepler space telescope continues to amaze scientists with its ability to detect large numbers of exoplanets. This time, the telescope outdid itself by providing NASA with a huge bounty of celestial bodies.

Kepler’s current K2 mission managed to detect 95 more alien planets, thought to be either smaller than Earth or as massive as Jupiter. That brings Kepler’s current mission tally to 292 exoplanets discovered while its total haul across the telescope’s operation life amounts to nearly 2,440 finds. In addition to the outstanding number of confirmed planets that could sustain life, Kepler has at least 2 thousand more candidates awaiting confirmation.

Exoplanets are planets located outside our solar system which orbits stars similar to how our Earth orbits the Sun.

In order for Kepler or any other telescope to detect these celestial bodies, scientists track dips in light caused by the shadow of an exoplanet passing in front of its star.

“We started out analyzing 275 candidates of which 149 were validated as real exoplanets,” Said Andrew Mayo, a Ph.D. student who works at the National Space Institute, and the lead author of the study detailing the discovery.  “In turn 95 of these planets have been proved to be new discoveries.”

Kepler suffered a major malfunction in 2013, which prompted scientists to give the telescope a follow-up K2 mission that’s proving to be more successful.

Since the mid-1990s, astronomers have cataloged more than 3.600 confirmed exoplanets. The two Kepler mission were able to find a whopping 5.100 unconfirmed exoplanet candidates.

The ultimate goal of this endeavor is to track down exoplanets that are rocky, habitable, and are approximately the same size as Earth, which could be capable of supporting life.

The study was published in the Astronomical Journal.

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Soon, scientists are going to install an array of 3,000 radio telescopes in the South African desert and the Australian outback. They are doing this with the purpose of listening to the oldest sounds that exist in the universe.

For this project, several researchers from across the world came together. The scientists come from different parts of Europe, Australia, China, and Britain. This is going to be the world’s largest radio telescope array or the world’s largest astronomical instrument.

 

The World’s Largest Radio Telescope Array, an Ambitious Project

 

This project is so big that no one nation can support the costs necessary for its construction on its own. Amazingly, each of the dishes will be 21 meters tall.

A prototype of the design of the SKA (Square Kilometre Array) was unveiled in Shijiazhuang (China) on February 6. By April, we should see another prototype erected at one of its future locations site in South Africa.

The construction of the SKA was pushed to 2026 since there are a couple of diplomatic and funding issues that the team needs to solve first. Phil Diamond, who is the director-general of the SKA Organisation (Manchester, UK), declared that it’s great to see the project taking some steps forward. According to him, this important achievement comes after an already 5-years effort.

 

What Is Their Purpose?

 

But why are the scientists doing this? As mentioned above, they want to listen to the universe’s oldest sounds. Nonetheless, researchers also have some other questions in mind that they would like to find an answer for. The list of questions includes:

• Was Einstein right?
• How were the first black holes and stars formed?
• What generates giant magnetic fields in space?
• How do galaxies evolve and what is dark energy?
• Are we alone in the universe?

This is a world first, as Douglas Bock, the director of astronomy and space science at Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, declared. According to him, it’s a global science project we should be proud of achieving.

 

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Up until now, scientists only suspected the existence of superionic water on Neptune and Uranus, but they couldn’t confirm it. Luckily, the use of novel instruments of exploration led to a new discovery.

 

What Is Superionic Water?

 

In a new study that was published in the journal Nature Physics, the research team confirmed the existence of superionic water on the surface of two planets, namely Neptune and Uranus. Still, what exactly is this superionic water?

Scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, who run the study, say that it is a substance that is neither solid nor liquid. It currently exists in a sludge-like state. They managed to obtain this result by using a shock compression technology.

When the scientists applied an excess of pressure to the water, the substance changed its state in a strange, yet interesting manner. What happens, in fact, is that the hydrogen jumps from one molecule to another.

Thus, it radically changes its form. Meanwhile, the oxygen keeps its original crystal structure, staying intact. There is plenty of such water found on the two planets mentioned above. For this reason, researchers want to find out more about its nature and how it interacts with other surrounding elements.

 

Future Research

 

The current study was conducted over a period of five years. Researchers were curious to find out more about superionic water. They especially looked to establish this since there is not enough pressure on most small-sized planets to create such water.

Next, they want to find out what happens when you mix this type of water with methane and ammonia. What they could find out would help humanity understand more about planets.

Up until now, scientists tested this water only in an isolated state. That’s why everybody is curious to see what happens when you mix it with other substances as well. Moreover, further research might help reveal more about the evolutionary patterns within our solar system.

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Scientists found massive natural reserves of mercury in Arctic permafrost, a toxic heavy metal that can build up in fish and other animals and cause health problems in humans.

According to a study published in the journal, Geophysical Research Letters, the mercury deposits found in the icy north may be 10 times greater than all the mercury released by humans in the atmosphere from pollution sources over the last three decades. Earth’s rising temperatures may one day thaw the permafrost releasing significant quantities of the poisonous metal into the environment.

According to study co-author, Kevin Schaefer of the National Snow and Ice Data Center, the recent discovery is the biggest pool of mercury on the planet. Paul Schuster, the study’s lead author, and US Geological Survey hydrologist calls the discovery a “game- changer” for mercury.

“It’s a natural source, but some of it will be released through what we’re doing with climate change.” Schuster noted.

Mercury is a naturally occurring element which is released by forest fires, volcanic eruptions, and the weathering of rock. However, an estimated two-thirds of the mercury found in the air can be traced to coal-burning, burning of medical waste or some types of mining. Mercury eventually finds its way back to Earth, slipping into water or on land. Once there, the metal is picked up by fish and animals, accumulating in higher amounts the farther up it climbs the food web.

Mercury is a potent neurotoxin in some forms, capable of affecting children’s brain development including cognition, language, memory and motor and visual skills. Adults are susceptible to the metal as well, as excessive amounts can impede vision, speech and muscle movements, and even compromise reproductive and immune systems.

The scientists took cores from permafrost across Alaska, measured their mercury levels and calculated how much of the toxin is present in permafrost across the world, specifically in Canada, Russia, and other northern countries.

How much mercury would be released depends on the volume of greenhouse-gas emissions and warming of the planet.

“The magnitude of this risk is as yet unknown,” the researchers said.

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Scientists have found evidence that a massive comet measuring 62 miles hit Earth about 12.800 years ago. The resulting firestorm is believed to have been greater than the one which caused the dinosaurs to go extinct. According to the researchers, the dust clouds created from the fire shrouded the Earth which led to a mini ice age.

The study, which was split into two papers and published in the Journal of Geology, labeled the event an “extraordinary biomass-burning episode and impact winter”. This incident is believed to have occurred shortly after the end of an ice age and put into motion one of the largest environment-burning episodes in over 120 thousand years.

The researchers claim that there are fragments of the 62-mile comet still circulating our solar system to this day. More so, the firestorm that engulfed the Earth was able to burn approximately 9 percent of the planet’s biomass. The smoke was so dense that it would have prevented sunlight from reaching the surface.

Earth’s temperature began to drop again, causing plants to wither off and die, effectively severing off food supplies for animals. The resulting mini ice age also allowed melting glaciers to reform. This event was so powerful that it even changed ocean currents. Researchers estimate that the resulting ice age lasted for a thousand years.

According to Adrian Melott, study author and an astrophysics professor at the University of Kansas, there were a number of different chemical signatures pointing to an ancient firestorm.

“—carbon dioxide, nitrate, ammonia and others—all seem to indicate that an astonishing 10 percent of the Earth’s land surface, or about 10 million square kilometres, was consumed by fired.” Professor Melott said in a statement.

Melott and his team also examined pollen levels, which prompted them to speculate that the fire burned off acres of pine forests. The burnt trees were later replaced with poplar trees.

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Anxious people have a higher chance of being bitten by a dog, according to a study published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health.

Researchers at the University of Liverpool in the UK based their findings on a study which involved over 700 people from Cheshire, England. They asked the participants whether they were ever bitten by a dog in their lifetime if they knew the dog beforehand and if they sought out medical treatment after the potential bite.

Nearly a quarter of respondents said that they have been bitten. Out of the 301 individuals who got chomped by a canine, a third required some degree of medical treatment while one person had to be admitted to the hospital.

The study found that men were twice as likely to report a bite than women, while dog owners were over three times more likely. In addition, 55 percent of the victims had been bitten by a dog who they had never met before the encounter.

Researchers found a common theme among the people who were bitten as they were less emotionally stable and more anxious.

“This study demonstrates that the most severe dog bites, of highest public health significance, are thankfully a small proportion of overall bites that occur,” the authors wrote.

The researchers also noted that most bites came from previously unknown canines, which throws a wrench in the theory that most bites typically come from familiar dogs.

In the study, they explained that if the number of bites reported Cheshire were extrapolated to the general population of the UK, it would translate to 18.7 bites per every one thousand people annually. This number is higher than official UK estimates.

While the study itself was based on a relatively small group, the results echo similar research conducted in the past.

Researchers couldn’t find a conclusive answer to why anxious people have more dog bites on them than others. There are a number of theories that could explain these occurrences. Dogs may find certain human behaviors threatening and stressful triggering an aggressive reaction from the canine. Another theory would be that anxious people gravitate towards similar personalities thus acquiring anxious dogs.

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